UTF-8 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

# UTF-8

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

UTF-8 (UCS Transformation Format—8-bit[1]) is a variable-width encoding that can represent every character in the Unicode character set. It was designed for backward compatibility with ASCII and to avoid the complications of endianness and byte order marks in UTF-16 and UTF-32.

UTF-8 has become the dominant character encoding for the World-Wide Web, accounting for more than half of all Web pages.[2][3][4] The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) requires all Internet protocols to identify the encoding used for character data, and the supported character encodings must include UTF-8.[5] The Internet Mail Consortium (IMC) recommends that all e-mail programs be able to display and create mail using UTF-8.[6] UTF-8 is also increasingly being used as the default character encoding in operating systems, programming languages, APIs, and software applications.[citation needed]

UTF-8 encodes each of the 1,112,064[7] code points in the Unicode character set using one to four 8-bit bytes (termed "octets" in the Unicode Standard). Code points with lower numerical values (i.e. earlier code positions in the Unicode character set, which tend to occur more frequently in practice) are encoded using fewer bytes.[8] The first 128 characters of Unicode, which correspond one-to-one with ASCII, are encoded using a single octet with the same binary value as ASCII, making valid ASCII text valid UTF-8-encoded Unicode as well.

The official IANA code for the UTF-8 character encoding is `UTF-8`.[9]

## [edit] History

By early 1992 the search was on for a good byte-stream encoding of multi-byte character sets. The draft ISO 10646 standard contained a non-required annex called UTF-1 that provided a byte-stream encoding of its 32-bit code points. This encoding was not satisfactory on performance grounds, but did introduce the notion that bytes in the range of 0–127 continue representing the ASCII characters in UTF, thereby providing backward compatibility with ASCII.

In July 1992, the X/Open committee XoJIG was looking for a better encoding. Dave Prosser of Unix System Laboratories submitted a proposal for one that had faster implementation characteristics and introduced the improvement that 7-bit ASCII characters would only represent themselves; all multibyte sequences would include only bytes where the high bit was set.

In August 1992, this proposal was circulated by an IBM X/Open representative to interested parties. Ken Thompson of the Plan 9 operating system group at Bell Labs then made a crucial modification to the encoding to allow it to be self-synchronizing, meaning that it was not necessary to read from the beginning of the string to find code point boundaries. Thompson's design was outlined on September 2, 1992, on a placemat in a New Jersey diner with Rob Pike. The following days, Pike and Thompson implemented it and updated Plan 9 to use it throughout, and then communicated their success back to X/Open.[10]

UTF-8 was first officially presented at the USENIX conference in San Diego, from January 25–29, 1993.

In November 2003 UTF-8 was restricted by RFC 3629 to four bytes in order to match the constraints of the UTF-16 character encoding.

## [edit] Description

The design of UTF‑8 is most easily seen in the table of the scheme as originally proposed by Dave Prosser and subsequently modified by Ken Thompson (the `x`'s are replaced by the bits of the code point):

Bits | Last code point | Byte 1 | Byte 2 | Byte 3 | Byte 4 | Byte 5 | Byte 6
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
7 | U+007F | `0xxxxxxx`
11 | U+07FF | `110xxxxx` | `10xxxxxx`
16 | U+FFFF | `1110xxxx` | `10xxxxxx` | `10xxxxxx`
21 | U+1FFFFF | `11110xxx` | `10xxxxxx` | `10xxxxxx` | `10xxxxxx`
26 | U+3FFFFFF | `111110xx` | `10xxxxxx` | `10xxxxxx` | `10xxxxxx` | `10xxxxxx`
31 | U+7FFFFFFF | `1111110x` | `10xxxxxx` | `10xxxxxx` | `10xxxxxx` | `10xxxxxx` | `10xxxxxx`

The salient features of the above scheme are as follows:

1. One-byte codes are used only for the ASCII values 0 through 127. In this case the UTF-8 code has the same value as the ASCII code. The high-order bit of these codes is always 0.
2. Codepoints larger than 127 are represented by multi-byte sequences, composed of a leading byte and one or more continuation bytes. The leading byte has two or more high-order 1s followed by a 0, while continuation bytes all have '10' in the high-order position.
3. The remaining bits of the encoding are used for the bits of the codepoint being encoded, padded with high-order 0s if necessary. The number of bytes in the encoding is the minimum required to hold all the significant bits of the codepoint.
4. The number of high-order 1s in the leading byte of a multi-byte sequence indicates the number of bytes in the sequence, so that the length of the sequence can be determined without examining the continuation bytes.
5. Single bytes, leading bytes, and continuation bytes do not share values. This makes the scheme "self synchronizing", allowing the start of a character to be found by backing up at most five bytes (three bytes in actual UTF‑8 as explained below).

The first 128 characters (US-ASCII) need one byte. The next 1,920 characters need two bytes to encode. This covers the remainder of almost all Latin-derived alphabets, and also Greek, Cyrillic, Coptic, Armenian, Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac and Tāna alphabets, as well as Combining Diacritical Marks. Three bytes are needed for characters in the rest of the Basic Multilingual Plane (which contains virtually all characters in common use). Four bytes are needed for characters in the other planes of Unicode, which include less common CJK characters and various historic scripts and mathematical symbols.

The original specification covered numbers up to 31 bits (the original limit of the Universal Character Set). In November 2003 UTF-8 was restricted by RFC 3629 to end at U+`10FFFF`, in order to match the constraints of the UTF-16 character encoding. This removed all 5- and 6-byte sequences, and about half of the 4-byte sequences.

### [edit] Examples

Let us consider how to encode the Euro sign, €.

1. The Unicode code point for "€" is U+20AC.
2. According to the scheme table above, this will take three bytes to encode, as it is between U+07FF and U+FFFF.
3. Hexadecimal `20AC` is binary `0010000010101100`. The two leading zeros are added because, as the scheme table shows, a three-byte encoding needs exactly sixteen bits from the code point.
4. Because it is a three-byte encoding, the leading byte starts with three 1s, then a 0 (`1110`...)
5. The remaining bits of this byte are taken from the code point (`11100010`), leaving ...`000010101100`.
6. Each of the continuation bytes starts with `10` and takes six bits of the code point (so `10000010`, then `10101100`).

The three bytes `11100010` `10000010` `10101100` can be more concisely written in hexadecimal, as `E2 82 AC`.

The following table summarises this conversion, as well as others with different lengths in UTF-8. The colors indicate how bits from the code point are distributed among the UTF-8 bytes. Additional bits added by the UTF-8 encoding process are shown in black.

Character | Binary code point | Binary UTF-8 | Hexadecimal UTF-8
--- | --- | --- | ---
$ | `U+0024` | `0100100` | `00100100` | `24`
¢ | `U+00A2` | `00010100010` | `11000010 10100010` | `C2 A2`
€ | `U+20AC` | `0010000010101100` | `11100010 10000010 10101100` | `E2 82 AC`
𤭢 | `U+24B62` | `000100100101101100010` | `11110000 10100100 10101101 10100010` | `F0 A4 AD A2`

### [edit] Overlong encodings

The standard specifies that the correct encoding of a codepoint use only the minimum number of bytes required to hold the significant bits of the codepoint. Longer encodings are called overlong and are not valid UTF-8 representations of the codepoint. This rule maintains a one-to-one correspondence between codepoints and their valid encodings, so that there is a unique valid encoding for each codepoint. Allowing multiple encodings would make testing for string equality difficult to define.

In principle, it would be possible to inflate the number of bytes in an encoding by padding the codepoint with leading 0s. To encode the Euro sign € from the above example in four bytes instead of three, it could be padded with leading 0s until it was 21 bits long—`000000010000010101100`. The leading byte prefix for a four-byte encoding is `11110`, and so the complete, overlong encoding is `11110000` `10000010` `10000010` `10101100` (or `F0` `82` `82` `AC` in hexadecimal).

Although overlong encodings are forbidden in UTF-8, at least one derivative makes use of the form. Modified UTF-8 requires the Unicode codepoint U+0000 (the NUL character) to be encoded in the overlong form `11000000` `10000000` (hex `C0` `80`), rather than `00000000` (hex `00`). This allows the byte `00` to be used as a string terminator.

### [edit] Codepage layout

UTF-8
| _0 | _1 | _2 | _3 | _4 | _5 | _6 | _7 | _8 | _9 | _A | _B | _C | _D | _E | _F
0_ | NUL 0000 0 | SOH 0001 1 | STX 0002 2 | ETX 0003 3 | EOT 0004 4 | ENQ 0005 5 | ACK 0006 6 | BEL 0007 7 | BS 0008 8 | HT 0009 9 | LF 000A 10 | VT 000B 11 | FF 000C 12 | CR 000D 13 | SO 000E 14 | SI 000F 15
1_ | DLE 0010 16 | DC1 0011 17 | DC2 0012 18 | DC3 0013 19 | DC4 0014 20 | NAK 0015 21 | SYN 0016 22 | ETB 0017 23 | CAN 0018 24 | EM 0019 25 | SUB 001A 26 | ESC 001B 27 | FS 001C 28 | GS 001D 29 | RS 001E 30 | US 001F 31
2_ | SP 0020 32 | ! 0021 33 | " 0022 34 | # 0023 35 | $ 0024 36 | % 0025 37 | & 0026 38 | ' 0027 39 | ( 0028 40 | ) 0029 41 | * 002A 42 | + 002B 43 | , 002C 44 | - 002D 45 | . 002E 46 | / 002F 47
3_ | 0 0030 48 | 1 0031 49 | 2 0032 50 | 3 0033 51 | 4 0034 52 | 5 0035 53 | 6 0036 54 | 7 0037 55 | 8 0038 56 | 9 0039 57 | : 003A 58 | ; 003B 59 | < 003C 60 | = 003D 61 | > 003E 62 | ? 003F 63
4_ | @ 0040 64 | A 0041 65 | B 0042 66 | C 0043 67 | D 0044 68 | E 0045 69 | F 0046 70 | G 0047 71 | H 0048 72 | I 0049 73 | J 004A 74 | K 004B 75 | L 004C 76 | M 004D 77 | N 004E 78 | O 004F 79
5_ | P 0050 80 | Q 0051 81 | R 0052 82 | S 0053 83 | T 0054 84 | U 0055 85 | V 0056 86 | W 0057 87 | X 0058 88 | Y 0059 89 | Z 005A 90 | [ 005B 91 | \ 005C 92 | ] 005D 93 | ^ 005E 94 | _ 005F 95
6_ | ` 0060 96 | a 0061 97 | b 0062 98 | c 0063 99 | d 0064 100 | e 0065 101 | f 0066 102 | g 0067 103 | h 0068 104 | i 0069 105 | j 006A 106 | k 006B 107 | l 006C 108 | m 006D 109 | n 006E 110 | o 006F 111
7_ | p 0070 112 | q 0071 113 | r 0072 114 | s 0073 115 | t 0074 116 | u 0075 117 | v 0076 118 | w 0077 119 | x 0078 120 | y 0079 121 | z 007A 122 | { 007B 123 | | 007C 124 | } 007D 125 | ~ 007E 126 | DEL 007F 127
8_ | • +00 128 | • +01 129 | • +02 130 | • +03 131 | • +04 132 | • +05 133 | • +06 134 | • +07 135 | • +08 136 | • +09 137 | • +0A 138 | • +0B 139 | • +0C 140 | • +0D 141 | • +0E 142 | • +0F 143
9_ | • +10 144 | • +11 145 | • +12 146 | • +13 147 | • +14 148 | • +15 149 | • +16 150 | • +17 151 | • +18 152 | • +19 153 | • +1A 154 | • +1B 155 | • +1C 156 | • +1D 157 | • +1E 158 | • +1F 159
A_ | • +20 160 | • +21 161 | • +22 162 | • +23 163 | • +24 164 | • +25 165 | • +26 166 | • +27 167 | • +28 168 | • +29 169 | • +2A 170 | • +2B 171 | • +2C 172 | • +2D 173 | • +2E 174 | • +2F 175
B_ | • +30 176 | • +31 177 | • +32 178 | • +33 179 | • +34 180 | • +35 181 | • +36 182 | • +37 183 | • +38 184 | • +39 185 | • +3A 186 | • +3B 187 | • +3C 188 | • +3D 189 | • +3E 190 | • +3F 191
2-byte C_ | 2-byte inval (0000) 192 | 2-byte inval (0040) 193 | Latin-1 0080 194 | Latin-1 00C0 195 | Latin Ext-A 0100 196 | Latin Ext-A 0140 197 | Latin Ext-B 0180 198 | Latin Ext-B 01C0 199 | Latin Ext-B 0200 200 | IPA 0240 201 | IPA 0280 202 | Spaci Modif 02C0 203 | Combi Diacr 0300 204 | Combi Diacr 0340 205 | Greek 0380 206 | Greek 03C0 207
2-byte D_ | Cyril 0400 208 | Cyril 0440 209 | Cyril 0480 210 | Cyril 04C0 211 | Cyril 0500 212 | Armen 0540 213 | Hebrew 0580 214 | Hebrew 05C0 215 | Arabic 0600 216 | Arabic 0640 217 | Arabic 0680 218 | Arabic 06C0 219 | Syriac 0700 220 | Arabic 0740 221 | Thaana 0780 222 | N'Ko 07C0 223
3-byte E_ | Indic 0800* 224 | Misc. 1000 225 | Symbol 2000 226 | Kana CJK 3000 227 | CJK 4000 228 | CJK 5000 229 | CJK 6000 230 | CJK 7000 231 | CJK 8000 232 | CJK 9000 233 | Asian A000 234 | Hangul B000 235 | Hangul C000 236 | Hangul Surr D000 237 | Priv Use E000 238 | Forms F000 239
4-byte F_ | Ancient Sym,CJK 10000* 240 | unall 40000 241 | unall 80000 242 | Tags Priv C0000 243 | Priv Use 100000 244 | 4-byte inval 140000 245 | 4-byte inval 180000 246 | 4-byte inval 1C0000 247 | 5-byte inval 200000* 248 | 5-byte inval 1000000 249 | 5-byte inval 2000000 250 | 5-byte inval 3000000 251 | 6-byte inval 4000000* 252 | 6-byte inval 40000000 253 | 254 | 255

Legend: Yellow cells are control characters, blue cells are punctuation, purple cells are digits and green cells are ASCII letters.

Orange cells with a large dot are continuation bytes. The hexadecimal number shown after a "+" plus sign is the value of the 6 bits they add.

White cells are the start bytes for a sequence of multiple bytes, the length shown at the left edge of the row. The text shows the Unicode blocks encoded by sequences starting with this byte, and the hexadecimal code point shown in the cell is the lowest character value encoded using that start byte. When a start byte could form both overlong and valid encodings, the lowest non-overlong-encoded codepoint is shown, marked by an asterisk "*".

Red cells must never appear in a valid UTF-8 sequence. The first two (C0 and C1) could only be used for overlong encoding of basic ASCII characters. The remaining red cells indicate start bytes of sequences that could only encode numbers larger than the 0x10FFFF limit of Unicode. The byte 244 (hex 0xF4) could also encode some values greater than 0x10FFFF; such a sequence is also invalid.

### [edit] Invalid byte sequences

Not all sequences of bytes are valid UTF-8. A UTF-8 decoder should be prepared for:

- the red invalid bytes in the above table
- an unexpected continuation byte
- a start byte not followed by enough continuation bytes
- a sequence that decodes to a value that should use a shorter sequence (an "overlong form")
- A 4-byte sequence (starting with 0xF4) that decodes to a value greater than U+10FFFF

Many earlier decoders would happily try to decode these. Carefully crafted invalid UTF-8 could make them either skip or create ASCII characters such as NUL, slash, or quotes. Invalid UTF-8 has been used to bypass security validations in high profile products including Microsoft's IIS web server[11] and Apache's Tomcat servlet container.[12]

RFC 3629 states "Implementations of the decoding algorithm MUST protect against decoding invalid sequences."[13] The Unicode Standard requires decoders to "...treat any ill-formed code unit sequence as an error condition. This guarantees that it will neither interpret nor emit an ill-formed code unit sequence."

Many UTF-8 decoders throw exceptions on encountering errors,[14] since such errors suggest the input is not a UTF-8 string at all. This can turn what would otherwise be harmless errors (producing a message such as "no such file") into a denial of service bug. For instance, Python 3.0 would exit immediately if the command line or environment variables contained invalid UTF-8,[15] so it was impossible for any Python program to detect and recover from such an error.

An increasingly popular option is to detect errors with a separate API, and for converters to translate the first byte to a replacement and continue parsing with the next byte. Popular replacements are:

- The replacement character "�" (U+FFFD)
- The invalid Unicode code points U+DC80..U+DCFF where the low 8 bits are the byte's value.
- Interpret the bytes according to ISO-8859-1 or CP1252.

Replacing errors is "lossy": more than one UTF-8 string converts to the same Unicode result. Therefore the original UTF-8 should be stored, and translation should only be used when displaying the text to the user.

### [edit] Invalid code points

According to the UTF-8 definition (RFC 3629) the high and low surrogate halves used by UTF-16 (U+D800 through U+DFFF) are not legal Unicode values, and the UTF-8 encoding of them is an invalid byte sequence and thus should be treated as described above.

Whether an actual application should do this with surrogate halves is debatable.[who?] Allowing them allows lossless storage of invalid UTF-16, and allows CESU encoding (described below) to be decoded. There are other code points that are far more important to detect and reject, such as the reversed-BOM U+FFFE, or the C1 controls, caused by improper conversion of CP1252 text or double-encoding of UTF-8. These are invalid in HTML.

## [edit] Official name and variants

The official name is "UTF-8". All letters are upper-case, and the name is hyphenated. This spelling is used in all the documents relating to the encoding.

Alternatively, the name "utf-8" may be used by all standards conforming to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) list (which include CSS, HTML, XML, and HTTP headers),[16] as the declaration is case insensitive.[17]

Other descriptions that omit the hyphen or replace it with a space, such as "utf8" or "UTF 8", are not accepted as correct by the governing standards.[18] Despite this, most agents such as browsers can understand them, and so standards intended to describe existing practice (such as HTML5) may effectively require their recognition.

MySQL omits the hyphen in the following query:

    SET NAMES 'utf8'

## [edit] Derivatives

The following implementations show slight differences from the UTF-8 specification. They are incompatible with the UTF-8 specification.

### [edit] CESU-8

Main article: CESU-8

Many programs added UTF-8 conversions for UCS-2 data and did not alter this UTF-8 conversion when UCS-2 was replaced with the surrogate-pair using UTF-16. In such programs each half of a UTF-16 surrogate pair is encoded as its own 3-byte UTF-8 encoding, resulting in 6-byte sequences rather than 4 bytes for characters outside the Basic Multilingual Plane. Oracle and MySQL databases use this, as well as Java and Tcl as described below, and probably many Windows programs where the programmers were unaware of the complexities of UTF-16. Although this non-optimal encoding is generally not deliberate, a supposed benefit is that it preserves UTF-16 binary sorting order when CESU-8 is binary sorted.

### [edit] Modified UTF-8

In Modified UTF-8,[19] the null character (U+0000) is encoded as 0xC0,0x80; this is not valid UTF-8[20] because it is not the shortest possible representation. Modified UTF-8 strings never contain any actual null bytes but can contain all Unicode code points including U+0000,[21] which allows such strings (with a null byte appended) to be processed by traditional null-terminated string functions.

All known Modified UTF-8 implementations also treat the surrogate pairs as in CESU-8.

In normal usage, the Java programming language supports standard UTF-8 when reading and writing strings through `InputStreamReader` and `OutputStreamWriter`. However it uses Modified UTF-8 for object serialization,[22] for the Java Native Interface,[23] and for embedding constant strings in class files.[24] Tcl also uses the same modified UTF-8[25] as Java for internal representation of Unicode data, but uses strict CESU-8 for external data.

### [edit] Extending from 31 bit to 36 bit range

Extending the accepted input pattern from 6 bytes to 7 bytes would allow over 70 billion code points to be encoded;[26] however, this would require an initial byte value of 0xFE to be accepted as a 7-byte sequence indicator (see under Advantages in section "Compared to single-byte encodings").

## [edit] Byte order mark

Many Windows programs (including Windows Notepad) add the bytes 0xEF, 0xBB, 0xBF at the start of any document saved as UTF-8. This is the UTF-8 encoding of the Unicode byte order mark (BOM), and is commonly referred to as a UTF-8 BOM, even though it is not relevant to byte order. The BOM can also appear if another encoding with a BOM is translated to UTF-8 without stripping it. Older text editors may display the BOM as "ï»¿" at the start of the document.

The Unicode Standard neither requires nor recommends the use of the BOM for UTF-8.[27] The presence of the UTF-8 BOM may cause interoperability problems with existing software that could otherwise handle UTF-8; for example:

- Programming language parsers not explicitly designed for UTF-8 can often handle UTF-8 in string constants and comments, but cannot parse the BOM at the start of the file.
- Programs that identify file types by leading characters may fail to identify the file if a BOM is present even if the user of the file could skip the BOM. An example is the Unix shebang syntax. Another example is Internet Explorer which will render pages in standards mode only when it starts with a document type declaration.

If compatibility with existing programs is not important, the BOM could be used to identify UTF-8 encoding. Because checking if text is valid UTF-8 is very reliable (the majority of random byte sequences are not valid UTF-8) such use should not be necessary. Programs that insert information at the start of a file will break this identification (one example is offline browsers that add the originating URL to the start of the file).

Unofficially, UTF-8-BOM or UTF-8-NOBOM are sometimes used to refer to text files which contain or lack a BOM. In Japan especially, "UTF-8 encoding without BOM" is sometimes called "UTF-8N".[citation needed]

## [edit] Advantages and disadvantages

| This section needs additional citations for verification. (October 2009)

### [edit] General

#### [edit] Advantages

- The ASCII characters are represented by themselves as single bytes that do not appear anywhere else, which makes UTF-8 work with the majority of existing APIs that take bytes strings but only treat a small number of ASCII codes specially. This removes the need to write a new Unicode version of every API, and makes it much easier to convert existing systems to UTF-8 than any other Unicode encoding.
- UTF-8 is the only encoding for XML entities that does not require a BOM or an indication of the encoding.[28]
- UTF-8 and UTF-16 are the standard encodings for Unicode text in HTML documents, with UTF-8 as the preferred and most used encoding.
- UTF-8 strings can be fairly reliably recognized as such by a simple heuristic algorithm.[29] The probability of a random string of bytes which is not pure ASCII being valid UTF-8 is 3.9% for a two-byte sequence,[30] and decreases exponentially for longer sequences. ISO/IEC 8859-1 is even less likely to be mis-recognized as UTF-8: the only non-ASCII characters in it would have to be in sequences starting with either an accented letter or the multiplication symbol and ending with a symbol. This is an advantage that most other encodings do not have, causing errors (mojibake) if the receiving application isn't told and can't guess the correct encoding. Even word-based UTF-16 can be mistaken for byte encodings (like in the "bush hid the facts" bug).
- Sorting of UTF-8 strings as arrays of unsigned bytes will produce the same results as sorting them based on Unicode code points.
- Other byte-based encodings can pass through the same API. This means, however, that the encoding must be identified. Because the other encodings are unlikely to be valid UTF-8, a reliable way to implement this is to assume UTF-8 and switch to a legacy encoding only if several invalid UTF-8 byte sequences are encountered.

#### [edit] Disadvantages

- A UTF-8 parser that is not compliant with current versions of the standard might accept a number of different pseudo-UTF-8 representations and convert them to the same Unicode output. This provides a way for information to leak past validation routines designed to process data in its eight-bit representation.[31]

### [edit] Compared to single-byte encodings

#### [edit] Advantages

- UTF-8 can encode any Unicode character, avoiding the need to figure out and set a "code page" or otherwise indicate what character set is in use, and allowing output in multiple scripts at the same time. For many scripts there have been more than one single-byte encoding in usage, so even knowing the script was insufficient information to display it correctly.
- The bytes 0xFE and 0xFF do not appear, so a valid UTF-8 stream never matches the UTF-16 byte order mark and thus cannot be confused with it. The absence of 0xFF (0377) also eliminates the need to escape this byte in Telnet (and FTP control connection).

#### [edit] Disadvantages

- UTF-8 encoded text is larger than the appropriate single-byte encoding except for plain ASCII characters. In the case of scripts which used 8-bit character sets with non-Latin scripts encoded in the upper half (such as most Cyrillic and Greek alphabet code pages), characters in UTF-8 will be double the size. For some scripts such as Thai and Hindi's Devanagari, characters will be triple the size (this has caused objections in India and other countries).
- It is possible in UTF-8 (or any other multi-byte encoding) to split or truncate a string in the middle of a character, which may result in an invalid string. This will not happen in correct handling of UTF-8.
- If the code points are all the same size, measurements of a fixed number of them is easy. Due to ASCII-era documentation where "character" is used as a synonym for "byte" this is often considered important. However, by measuring string positions using bytes instead of "characters" most algorithms can be easily and efficiently adapted for UTF-8[citation needed].
- Some software such as text editors will refuse to correctly display or interpret UTF-8 unless it starts with a Byte Order Mark. This has the effect of making it impossible to use UTF-8 with any older software than can handle ASCII-like encodings but cannot handle the byte order mark. This is considered an incorrect implementation of the text editor, not the older software.

### [edit] Compared to other multi-byte encodings

#### [edit] Advantages

- UTF-8 uses the codes 0–127 only for the ASCII characters. This means that UTF-8 is an ASCII extension and can with limited change be supported by software that supports an ASCII extension and handles non-ASCII characters as free text.
- UTF-8 can encode any Unicode character. Files in different scripts can be displayed correctly without having to choose the correct code page or font. For instance Chinese and Arabic can be supported (in the same text) without special codes inserted or manual settings to switch the encoding.
- UTF-8 is "self-synchronizing": character boundaries are easily found when searching either forwards or backwards. If bytes are lost due to error or corruption, one can always locate the beginning of the next character and thus limit the damage. Many multi-byte encodings are much harder to resynchronize.
- Any byte oriented string searching algorithm can be used with UTF-8 data, since the sequence of bytes for a character cannot occur anywhere else. Some older variable-length encodings (such as Shift JIS) did not have this property and thus made string-matching algorithms rather complicated. In Shift JIS the end byte of a character and the first byte of the next character could look like another legal character, something that can't happen in UTF-8.
- Efficient to encode using simple bit operations. UTF-8 does not require slower mathematical operations such as multiplication or division (unlike the obsolete UTF-1 encoding).

#### [edit] Disadvantages

- For certain scripts UTF-8 will take more space than an older multi-byte encoding. East Asian scripts generally have two bytes per character in their multi-byte encodings yet take three bytes per character in UTF-8.

### [edit] Compared to UTF-16

#### [edit] Advantages

- A text byte stream cannot be losslessly converted to UTF-16, due to the possible presence of errors in the byte stream encoding. This causes unexpected and often severe problems attempting to use existing data in a system that uses UTF-16 as an internal encoding. Results are security bugs, DoS if bad encoding throws an exception, and data loss when different byte streams convert to the same UTF-16. Due to the ASCII compatibility and high degree of pattern recognition in UTF-8, random byte streams can be passed losslessly through a system using it, as interpretation can be deferred until display.
- Converting to UTF-16 while maintaining compatibility with existing programs (such as was done with Windows) requires every API and data structure that takes a string to be duplicated. Invalid encodings make the duplicated APIs not exactly map to each other, often making it impossible to do some action with one of them.
- Characters outside the basic multilingual plane are not a special case. UTF-16 is often mistaken to be the obsolete constant-length UCS-2 encoding, leading to code that works for most text but suddenly fails for non-BMP characters.[32]
- Text encoded in UTF-8 is often smaller than (or the same size as) the same text encoded in UTF-16.
  - This is always true for text using only code points below U+0800 (which includes all modern European scripts), as each code point's UTF-8 encoding is one or two bytes then.
  - Even if text contains code points between U+0800 and U+FFFF, it might contain so many code points below U+0080 (which UTF-8 encodes in one byte) that the UTF-8 encoding is still smaller. As HTML markup and line terminators are code points below U+0080, most HTML source is smaller if encoded in UTF-8 even for Asian scripts.
  - Non-BMP characters (U+10000 and above) are encoded in UTF-8 in four bytes, the same size as in UTF-16.
- Most communication and storage was designed for a stream of bytes. A UTF-16 string must use a pair of bytes for each code unit:
  - The order of those two bytes becomes an issue and must be specified in the UTF-16 protocol, such as with a byte order mark.
  - If an odd number of bytes is missing from UTF-16, the whole rest of the string will be meaningless text. Any bytes missing from UTF-8 will still allow the text to be recovered accurately starting with the next character after the missing bytes. If any partial character is removed the corruption is always recognizable.

#### [edit] Disadvantages

- Characters U+0800 through U+FFFF use three bytes in UTF-8, but only two in UTF-16. As a result, text in (for example) Chinese, Japanese or Hindi could take more space in UTF-8 if there are more of these characters than there are ASCII characters. This happens for pure text,[33] but rarely for HTML documents. For example, both the Japanese UTF-8 and the Hindi Unicode articles on Wikipedia take more space in UTF-16 than in UTF-8 .[34]

## [edit] See also

- Alt code
- Character encodings in HTML
- Comparison of e-mail clients#Features
- Comparison of Unicode encodings
- GB 18030
- Iconv—a standardized API used to convert between different character encodings
- ISO/IEC 8859
- Specials (Unicode block)
- Unicode and e-mail
- Unicode and HTML
- Universal Character Set
- UTF-8 in URIs
- UTF-9 and UTF-18
- UTF-16/UCS-2

## [edit] References

1. ^ [|The Unicode Consortium]. "Chapter 2. General Structure". The Unicode Standard (6.0 ed.). Mountain View, California, USA: The Unicode Consortium. ISBN 978-1-936213-01-6. http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/. . RFC 3629 also refers to UTF-8 as "UCS transformation format". Also commonly known as "Unicode Transformation Format".
2. ^ Mark Davis (28 January 2010). "Unicode nearing 50% of the web". Official Google Blog. Google. http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2010/01/unicode-nearing-50-of-web.html. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
3. ^ "UTF-8 Usage Statistics". BuiltWith. http://trends.builtwith.com/encoding/UTF-8. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
4. ^ "Usage of character encodings for websites". W3Techs. http://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/character_encoding/all. Retrieved 2010-03-30.
5. ^ Alvestrand, H. (1998). "IETF Policy on Character Sets and Languages". RFC 2277. Internet Engineering Task Force.
6. ^ "Using International Characters in Internet Mail". Internet Mail Consortium. August 1, 1998. http://www.imc.org/mail-i18n.html. Retrieved 2007-11-08.
7. ^ Not all of the 1,112,064 possible code points have been assigned characters; many are reserved for future use, and some are reserved for private use, while still others are specified as permanently undefined.
8. ^ More precisely, the number of bytes used to encode a character at a given code point is a monotonically increasing function of the numerical value of the code point.
9. ^ Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (4 November 2010). "CHARACTER SETS". IANA. http://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
10. ^ Pike, Rob (2003-04-03). "UTF-8 history". http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/ucs/utf-8-history.txt.
11. ^ Marin, Marvin (2000-10-17). "Web Server Folder Traversal MS00-078". http://www.sans.org/resources/malwarefaq/wnt-unicode.php.
12. ^ "National Vulnerability Database - Summary for CVE-2008-2938". http://web.nvd.nist.gov/view/vuln/detail?vulnId=CVE-2008-2938.
13. ^ Yergeau, F. (2003). "UTF-8, a transformation format of ISO 10646". RFC 3629. Internet Engineering Task Force
14. ^ Examples: UTF8 (Java Class Library API) or java.nio.charset.CharsetDecoder.decode
15. ^ "Non-decodable Bytes in System Character Interfaces". http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0383/.
16. ^ W3C: Setting the HTTP charset parameter notes that the IANA list is used for HTTP
17. ^ Internet Assigned Numbers Authority Character Sets
18. ^ RFC 3629 UTF-8 see chapter 8. MIME registration, first paragraph
19. ^ "Java SE 6 documentation for Interface java.io.DataInput, subsection on Modified UTF-8". Sun Microsystems. 2008. http://java.sun.com/javase/6/docs/api/java/io/DataInput.html#modified-utf-8. Retrieved 2009-05-22.
20. ^ "[...] the overlong UTF-8 sequence C0 80 [...]", "[...] the illegal two-octet sequence C0 80 [...]""Request for Comments 3629: "UTF-8, a transformation format of ISO 10646"". 2003. http://www.apps.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3629.html#page-5. Retrieved 2009-05-22.
21. ^ "[...] Java virtual machine UTF-8 strings never have embedded nulls.""The Java Virtual Machine Specification, 2nd Edition, section 4.4.7: "The CONSTANT_Utf8_info Structure"". Sun Microsystems. 1999. http://java.sun.com/docs/books/jvms/second_edition/html/ClassFile.doc.html#7963. Retrieved 2009-05-24.
22. ^ "[...] encoded in modified UTF-8.""Java Object Serialization Specification, chapter 6: Object Serialization Stream Protocol, section 2: Stream Elements". Sun Microsystems. 2005. http://java.sun.com/javase/6/docs/platform/serialization/spec/protocol.html#8299. Retrieved 2009-05-22.
23. ^ "The JNI uses modified UTF-8 strings to represent various string types.""Java Native Interface Specification, chapter 3: JNI Types and Data Structures, section: Modified UTF-8 Strings". Sun Microsystems. 2003. http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.5.0/docs/guide/jni/spec/types.html#wp16542. Retrieved 2009-05-22.
24. ^ "[...] differences between this format and the "standard" UTF-8 format.""The Java Virtual Machine Specification, 2nd Edition, section 4.4.7: "The CONSTANT_Utf8_info Structure"". Sun Microsystems. 1999. http://java.sun.com/docs/books/jvms/second_edition/html/ClassFile.doc.html#7963. Retrieved 2009-05-23.
25. ^ "In orthodox UTF-8, a NUL byte(\x00) is represented by a NUL byte. [...] But [...] we [...] want NUL bytes inside [...] strings [...]""Tcler's Wiki: UTF-8 bit by bit (Revision 6)". 2009-04-25. http://wiki.tcl.tk/_/revision?N=1211&V=6. Retrieved 2009-05-22.
26. ^ Computational Methods in Linguistic Research, 2004
27. ^ The Unicode Standard - Chapter 2, see chapter 2.6 page 30 bottom.
28. ^ W3.org
29. ^ W3 FAQ: Multilingual Forms: a Perl regular expression to validate a UTF-8 string)
30. ^ There are 256 × 256 − 128 × 128 not-pure-ASCII two-byte sequences, and of those, only 1920 encode valid UTF-8 characters (the range U+0080 to U+07FF), so the proportion of valid not-pure-ASCII two-byte sequences is 3.9%. Note that this assumes that control characters pass as ASCII; without the control characters, the percentage proportions drop somewhat).
31. ^ Tools.ietf.org
32. ^ "Should UTF-16 be considered harmful?". Stackoverflow.com. http://stackoverflow.com/questions/1049947/should-utf-16-be-considered-harmful. Retrieved 2010-09-13.
33. ^ Although the difference may not be great: the 2010-11-22 version of hi:यूनिकोड (Unicode in Hindi), when the pure text was pasted to Notepad, generated 19 KB when saved as UTF-16 and 22 KB when saved as UTF-8.
34. ^ The 2010-10-27 version of ja:UTF-8 generated 169 KB when converted with Notepad to UTF-16, and only 101 KB when converted back to UTF-8. The 2010-11-22 version of hi:यूनिकोड (Unicode in Hindi) required 119 KB in UTF-16 and 76 KB in UTF-8.

## [edit] External links

There are several current definitions of UTF-8 in various standards documents:

- RFC 3629 / STD 63 (2003), which establishes UTF-8 as a standard Internet protocol element
- The Unicode Standard, Version 6.0, §3.9 D92, §3.10 D95 (2011)
- ISO/IEC 10646:2003 Annex D (2003)

They supersede the definitions given in the following obsolete works:

- ISO/IEC 10646-1:1993 Amendment 2 / Annex R (1996)
- The Unicode Standard, Version 5.0, §3.9 D92, §3.10 D95 (2007)
- The Unicode Standard, Version 4.0, §3.9–§3.10 (2003)
- The Unicode Standard, Version 2.0, Appendix A (1996)
- RFC 2044 (1996)
- RFC 2279 (1998)
- The Unicode Standard, Version 3.0, §2.3 (2000) plus Corrigendum #1 : UTF-8 Shortest Form (2000)
- Unicode Standard Annex #27: Unicode 3.1 (2001)

They are all the same in their general mechanics, with the main differences being on issues such as allowed range of code point values and safe handling of invalid input.

- Original UTF-8 paper (or pdf) for Plan 9 from Bell Labs
- RFC 5198 defines UTF-8 NFC for Network Interchange
- UTF-8 test pages by Andreas Prilop, Jost Gippert and the World Wide Web Consortium
- How to configure e-mail clients to send UTF-8 text
- Unix/Linux: UTF-8/Unicode FAQ, Linux Unicode HOWTO, UTF-8 and Gentoo
- The Unicode/UTF-8-character table displays UTF-8 in a variety of formats (with Unicode and HTML encoding information)
- Unicode and Multilingual Web Browsers from Alan Wood's Unicode Resources describes support and additional configuration of Unicode/UTF-8 in modern browsers
- JSP Wiki Browser Compatibility page details specific problems with UTF-8 in older browsers
- Mathematical Symbols in Unicode
- Graphical View of UTF-8 in ICU's Converter Explorer

Unicode
Unicode | Unicode Consortium ISO/IEC 10646 (Universal Character Set) Versions
Code points | Block Character charts Character property Mapping characters Plane Private Use Area
Characters |
Special purpose | BOM Combining grapheme joiner Left-to-right mark / Right-to-left mark Soft hyphen Zero-width joiner Zero-width non-breaking space Zero-width non-joiner Zero-width space
Lists | CJK Unified Ideographs Combining character Duplicate characters Numerals Scripts Spaces Symbols
Processing |
Algorithms | Bi-directional text Collation ISO 14651 Equivalence
Comparison | BOCU-1 CESU-8 Punycode SCSU UTF-1 UTF-7 UTF-8 UTF-9/UTF-18 UTF-16/UCS-2 UTF-32/UCS-4 UTF-EBCDIC
On pairs of code points | Combining character Compatibility characters Duplicate characters Equivalence Homoglyph Precomposed character list Z-variant
Usage | Domain names (IDN) Email Fonts HTML entity references numeric reference Input Private Character Editor (MS)
Related standards | Common Locale Data Repository (CLDR) GB 18030 Han unification ISO/IEC 8859 ISO 15924
Related topics | Anomalies ConScript Unicode Registry Ideographic Rapporteur Group International Components for Unicode People involved with Unicode
Scripts and symbols in Unicode
Common and inherited scripts | Combining marks Diacritics Punctuation Space
Modern scripts | Arabic diacritics Armenian Balinese Bamum Batak Bengali Bopomofo Braille Buhid Burmese Canadian Aboriginal Chakma Cham Cherokee CJK Unified Ideographs (Han) Cyrillic Deseret Devanagari Ge'ez Georgian Greek Gujarati Gurmukhī Han tu Hangul Hanja Hanunó'o Hebrew diacritics Hiragana Javanese Kanji Kannada Katakana Kayah Li Khmer Lao Latin Lepcha Limbu Lisu (Fraser) Lontara Malayalam Manchu Mandaic Meetei Mayek Miao (Pollard) Mongolian N'Ko New Tai Lue Ol Chiki Oriya Osmanya Rejang Samaritan Śāradā Saurashtra Shavian Sinhala Sorang Sompeng Sundanese Sylheti Nagari Syriac Tagalog (Baybayin) Tagbanwa Tai Le Tai Tham Tai Viet Takri Tamil Telugu Thaana Thai Tibetan Tifinagh Vai Yi
Ancient and historic scripts | Avestan Brāhmī Carian Coptic Cuneiform Cypriot Egyptian hieroglyphs Glagolitic Gothic Imperial Aramaic Inscriptional Pahlavi Inscriptional Parthian Kaithi Kharosthi Linear B Lycian Lydian Meroitic Ogham Old Italic Old Persian cuneiform Old Turkic 'Phags-pa Phoenician Runic South Arabian Ugaritic
Symbols | Cultural, political, and religious symbols Currency Mathematical operators and symbols Phonetic symbols (including IPA)

Character encodings
Character sets
Early telecommunications | ASCII ISO/IEC 646 ISO/IEC 6937 T.61 BCD (6-bit) Baudot code Morse code Chinese telegraph code
ISO/IEC 8859 | -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -16
Bibliographic use | ANSEL ISO 5426 / 5426-2 / 5427 / 5428 / 6438 / 6861 / 6862 / 10585 / 10586 / 10754 / 11822 MARC-8
National standards | ArmSCII CNS 11643 GOST 10859 GB 2312 HKSCS ISCII JIS X 0201 JIS X 0208 JIS X 0212 JIS X 0213 KPS 9566 KS X 1001 PASCII TIS-620 TSCII VISCII YUSCII
EUC | CN JP KR TW
ISO/IEC 2022 | CN JP KR CCCII
MacOS codepages ("scripts") | Arabic CentralEurRoman ChineseSimp / EUC-CN ChineseTrad / Big5 Croatian Cyrillic Devanagari Dingbats Farsi Greek Gujarati Gurmukhi Hebrew Icelandic Japanese / ShiftJIS Korean / EUC-KR Roman Romanian Symbol Thai / TIS-620 Turkish Ukrainian
DOS codepages | 437 720 737 775 850 852 855 857 858 860 861 862 863 864 865 866 869 Kamenický Mazovia MIK Iran System
Windows codepages | 874 / TIS-620 932 / Shift JIS 936 / GBK 949 / EUC-KR 950 / Big5 1250 1251 1252 1253 1254 1255 1256 1257 1258 1361 54936 / GB18030
EBCDIC codepages | 37/1140 273/1141 277/1142 278/1143 280/1144 284/1145 285/1146 297/1147 420/16804 424/12712 500/1148 838/1160 871/1149 875/9067 930/1390 933/1364 937/1371 935/1388 939/1399 1025/1154 1026/1155 1047/924 1112/1156 1122/1157 1123/1158 1130/1164 JEF KEIS
Platform specific | ATASCII CDC display code DEC-MCS DEC Radix-50 Fieldata GSM 03.38 HP roman8 PETSCII TI calculator character sets WISCII ZX Spectrum character set
Unicode / ISO/IEC 10646 | UTF-8 UTF-16/UCS-2 UTF-32/UCS-4 UTF-7 UTF-1 UTF-EBCDIC GB 18030 SCSU BOCU-1
Miscellaneous codepages | APL Cork HZ IBM code page 1133 KOI8 TRON
Related topics | control character (C0 C1) CCSID Character encodings in HTML charset detection Han unification ISO 6429/IEC 6429/ANSI X3.64 mojibake

Rob Pike
Operating systems | Plan 9 from Bell Labs Inferno
Programming languages | Newsqueak Limbo Go Sawzall
Software | acme Blit sam rio 8½
Publications | The Practice of Programming The Unix Programming Environment
Other | Renée French Mark V Shaney UTF-8

Ken Thompson
Operating systems | Unix Plan 9 from Bell Labs
Programming languages | B Bon Go
Software | Belle ed sam Space Travel
Other | UTF-8

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UTF-8&oldid=507478399"
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